The Slovak language reference article from the English Wikipedia on 24-Apr-2004 (provided by Fixed Reference: snapshots of Wikipedia from wikipedia.org)

Slovak language

Slovak (Slovenčina)
Spoken in:	Slovakia, USA, Czech Republic and elsewhere
Region:	--
Total speakers:	5.6 million
Ranking:	Not in top 100.
Genetic classification:	Indo-European  Slavic   West    Slovak
Official status
Official language of:	Slovakia (and European Union from May 1, 2004)
Regulated by:	Slovak Academy of Sciences (The Ľudovít Štúr Linguistic Institute)
Language codes
ISO 639-1	sk
ISO 639-2(B)	slo
ISO 639-2(T)	slk
SIL	SLO

The Slovak language (Slovenčina, Slovenský jazyk) is an Indo-European language, more precisely a West Slavic language (together with mainly the Czech, Polish, and Sorbian languages).

Slovak is spoken in Slovakia (by 4.5 million people), the USA (500.000, emigrants), the Czech Republic (320.000, due to former Czechoslovakia), Hungary (110.000, ancient ethnic minority), Serbia (80.000, ancient ethnic minority), Romania (22.000, ancient ethnic minority), Poland (20.000), Canada (20.000, emigrants), Australia (emigrants), Ukraine, Bulgaria, Croatia, Russia and some other countries

The correct American English adjective for the language, people, and culture of Slovakia is 'Slovak;' Slovak belongs to the 'Slavic' group of languages. British usage employs 'Slovakian' for the American 'Slovak' and uses 'Slavonic' where the American usage is 'Slavic'.

Table of contents

1 Alphabet 2 Pronunciation and spelling 3 Orthography 4 Syntax 5 Morphology 5.1 Articles (Členy): 5.2 Nouns (Podstatné mená) 5.3 Adjectives (Prídavné mená) 5.4 Pronouns (Zámená) 5.5 Numerals (Číslovky) 5.6 Verbs (Slovesá) 5.7 Adverbs (Príslovky) 5.8 Prepositions (Predložky) 5.9 Conjunctions (Spojky), Particles (Častice), Interjections (Citoslovce) 6 Vocabulary 7 History 8 Relations to other languages 9 Differences between the Slovak and Czech language 10 Dialects 11 See also 12 External links

Alphabet

The Slovak language uses a modified Roman (Latin) alphabet. Modified means that it uses four types of diacritical marks (ˇ, ´, ¨, ^; see Pronunciation) placed above some letters.

The lexicographic ordering of the Slovak alphabet is very similar to the English alphabet: A B C D DZ E F G H CH I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z. The complete alphabet, however, allows for characters with diacritics (the character with diacritics always comes after the same character without diacritics) and is as follows: a á ä b c č d ď dz dž e é f g h ch i í j k l ľ ĺ m n ň o ó ô p q r ŕ s š t ť u ú v w x y ý z ž. Note that dz, dž and ch are considered single letters and that ch follows the h (not the c). The letters "q" and "w" are only used in foreign words, never in native Slovak words.

The names of the letters (like in English ey, bee, cee, dee …) are: a, á, ä, bé, cé, čé, dé, ďé, dzé, džÃƒÂƒÃ‚©, e, é, ef, gé, há, chá, i, í, jé, ká, el, eľ, eĺ, em, en, eň, o, ó, ô, pé, kvé, er, eŕ, eš, té, ťÃƒÂƒÃ‚©, u, ú, vé, dvojité vé, iks, ypsilon, zet, žet (for pronunciation see below)

The characters are divided as follows:

• Vowels are: a á ä e é i í o ó y ý u ú.
• Diphthongs are: ia, ie, iu, ô.
• Consonants are: b c č d ď dz dž f g h ch j k l ľ ĺ m n ň p q r ŕ s š t ťv w x z ž. The consonants r, l, ŕ, ĺ are considered vowels in some cases (see Pronunciation).

Pronunciation and spelling

The Slovak language has distinctive palatalization.

The accent (stress) is always on the first syllable. It is weaker than the English or German or Russian accent, but stronger than the French one. Monosyllabic conjunctions, monosyllabic short personal pronouns and auxiliary verb forms of the verb to be are not stressed (officially at least).

Prepositions are pronounced together with the following word (officially at least).

The acute mark (in Slovak dĺžeň, i.e. prolongation mark) indicates the long pronunciation of the character below it, e.g. í = approximately iii . The acute can be above all vowels and only above the 2 consonants "l" and "r" (strictly speaking, the r and l are called vowels then, because in Slovak r and l can function either as a vowel (long or short) – a so-called syllabic r,l - or as a consonant, although they are pronounced the same way in both cases). Long vowels are 2-3 times longer than corresponding normal (i.e. short) vowels, the long l or r should have an even longer pronunciation. Note that the acute mark has nothing to do with accent in the Slovak language.

The circumflex (vokáň) exists only above the letter "o" (and turns the o into a diphthong – see below).

The diaresis (umlaut, "dve bodky" = two dots) is only used above the letter "a" (and turns the a into e – see below).

The caron (in Slovak mäkčeň, i.e. palatalization mark or softening mark) indicates the soft pronunciation (i.e. palatalization) of the character (always a consonant) below it. Only 8 consonants can bear a caron, i.e. not all “normal” (i.e. hard) consonants have a soft counterpart:

• In printed texts, the palatalization mark is printed in two forms: (1) č, dž, š, ž and (2) ľ,ď,ť (looking more like an apostrophe), but this is just a convention. In handwritten texts, it always takes the form (1).
• Phonetically, there are two forms of palatalization: ľ,ň,ď,ť are pronounced approximately as if there was a Slovak j behind them, while the č, dž, š, ž have a special pronunciation (see below) .
• To accelerate writing, a rule has been introduced that the frequent character combinations ňe, ďe, ťe, ľe, ňi, ľi, ďi, ťi , ňí, ľÃƒÂƒÃ‚­, ďí, ťÃƒÂƒÃ‚­ must be written ne, de, te, le, ni, di, ti, li ... (i.e. without the caron).In other words ne, de, te, le, ni, di etc. are pronounced as if there were a caron above the consonant. There are, however, many exceptions from this rule, especially in many foreign words (e.g. telefón is pronounced with a hard t and a hard l).
• ľ is nowadays very often but wrongly (esp. in western Slovakia, and esp. in li, le where the caron is not written) pronounced as a normal l (An analogous tendency occurs in European Spanish, where however the ll is pronounced like English y instead of l).

The values of the characters b, d, f, h, l, k, m, n, p, x are approximately equal to their English counterparts'. The vowel combinations ia, ie, iu, ô [pronounced appr. like uo] are diphthongs, i.e. both elements are pronounced “together” the first element is almost a Slovak j for ia, ie, and iu and almost an English w for ô.

• a – u in cut
• á – a in father (long a)
• ä - e in set (or in archaic pronunciation like a in fat)
• c – ts in its
• č - ch in child
• ď - approx. British d in during, dew
• dz - approx. d+z (voiced c; like the Italian „zz“ in organizzare)
• dž - j in John (voiced č)
• e – e in set
• é – ai in fair (long e)
• g – g in go
• ch – Scottish ch, e.g. in Loch Ness (approx. like German ch, Russian x)
• i – i in sit
• í – ee in need (long i)
• j – y in yes
• ľ - approx. l in lurid (like "gli..." in Italian or "ll" in European Spanish)
• ĺ – approx. lll
• ň - approx. n in new (like French gn or Spanish ñ)
• o – o in odd
• ó – aw in saw, a in ball (long o)
• r - rolled r like in Italian, Scottish, Bavarian (and like a Spanish r that is not before a vowel and not at the beginning of the word, e.g. in color)
• ŕ – approx. rrr (approx. like Spanish rr in zorro)
• s – s in save
• š - sh in she
• ť - approx. t in tutor
• ô - approx. wo in wonder
• q – like Slovak kv
• u – u in put
• ú - oo in choose (long u)
• v – v in very (but before a consonant or at the end of a word like the w in window)
• y - like Slovak i
• ý – like Slovak í (long y)
• z – z in zone
• ž - s in pleasure (like French j in journal or g in général)
• w – like Slovak v

In addition, the following rules hold:

1. When a voiced consonant having a voiceless correspondent (i.e. b,d,ď, dz, dž, g, h, v, z, ž) stands at the end of the word, it is pronounced as a voiceless consonant (i.e. p, t, ť, c, č, k, ch, f, s, š, respectively), e.g. pohyb is pronounced [pohyp], prípad is pronounced [prípat]
2. The assimilation rule: When voiced consonant(s) having a voiceless correspondent and voiceless consonant(s) meet in the word, all consonants of the group are pronounced as voiced if the last consonant is a voiced one, or as voiceless if the last consonant is a voiceless one, e.g. otázka is pronounced [otáska], vzchopiť sa is pronounced [fschop…]
3. The rhythmical rule: A long syllable (i. e. a syllable containing á, é, í, ý, ó, ú, ŕ, ĺ, ia, ie, iu, ô) cannot be followed by another long syllable, i. e. the following syllable must be made short (in writing and pronunciation) (this rule has implications for the formation, declension (e. g. ženám but trávam) and conjugation (e. g. nosím but súdim) of words; there are several exceptions from this rule; this rule is typical of the Slovak language (not existing in Czech, for example)).

Orthography

The primary principle of Slovak spelling is the phonetic principle (i. e. “Write as you hear”) – as opposed to the English spelling where the etymological principle is primary. The secondary principle is the morphological principle (i. e. all forms derived from the same stem are written the same way even if they are pronounced differently in reality) – the main example is the assimilation rule (see Pronunciation). The tertiary principle is the etymological principle, which can be seen in the use of i after certain consonants and of y after other consonants, although both i and y are pronounced the same way. And finally there is the rarely applied grammatical principle, under which, for example, there is a difference in writing (but not in the pronunciation) between the basic singular and plural form of masculine adjectives, e. g. pekný (nice – sg) vs. pekní (nice-pl.).

Most foreign words receive Slovak spelling immediately or after some time, e.g. weekend is "víkend", software is “softvér” (but some 15 years ago spelled the English way), and quality is spelled "kvalita". However, personal and geographical names keep their original spelling, unless there is a fully Slovak form for the name (e.g. Londýn for London) or they are originally written in non-Latin characters – such as Arabic or Chinese – of course.

Syntax

The main features of Slovak syntax are:

• The verb (predicate) agrees in person and number with its subject - just like e.g. in German, Slavic and Romance languages
• An adjective, pronoun and partly also a numeral agrees in person, gender and case with the noun it refers to. (See Slovak declension) – just like in most Slavic languages
• An adjective always precedes the corresponding noun - like in English, unlike in Polish and Romance languages

The word order is relatively free (unlike in English or French), because – as opposed to English – the strong inflection of the words enables to identify the role of a word (subject, object, predicate, etc.) regardless of its placement within the sentence. The relatively free word order enables the Slovaks (just like other Slavs) to use the word order to convey information on which information is considered most important or new: Constituents with old information precede constituents with new information, or those that carry most emphasis. Examples:

Ten veľký človek tam dnes otvára obchod = The big man opens a store there today. (Ten = The; veľký = big; človek = man; tam = there; dnes = today; otvára =opens ; obchod = store)

Ten veľký človek dnes otvára obchod tam = It is there that the big man opens a store today

Dnes tam otvára obchod ten veľký človek = It is the big man who opens a store there today

Obchod tam dnes otvára ten veľký človek = As for the store, it is opened there by the big man

However, the normal order is Subject-Verb-Object (like in English) and the word order is not completely arbitrary . For example, in the above example, the following combinations are not possible:

Otvára veľký človek tam dnes obchod.

Obchod ten veľký človek tam dnes otvára. . . .

Morphology

Articles (Členy):

There are no articles in the Slovak language. If it is really necessary to emphasize that the thing that one is talking about was already mentioned, the demonstrative pronoun ten (fem: tá, neuter: to) can be used in front of the noun.

Nouns (Podstatné mená)

See: Slovak declension

Adjectives (Prídavné mená)

See: Slovak declension

Pronouns (Zámená)

See: Slovak declension

Numerals (Číslovky)

The basic formation of Slovak numerals is like in English: There are special words for 0-19 and for 20, 30 . . . 90, 100, 1000 etc. and the compound numerals (21, 1054) are simply combinations of these special words formed in the same order as their mathematical symbol is written (e. g. 21 = dvadsaťjeden (i. e. literally „twentyone“)).

The numerals are: (1) jeden, (2) dva, (3) tri, (4) štyri, (5) päť, (6) šesť, (7) sedem, (8) osem, (9) deväť, (10) desať, (11) jedenásť, (12) dvanásť, (13) trinásť, (14) štrnásť, (15) pätnásť, (16) šestnásť, (17) sedemnásť, (18) osemnásť, (19) devätnásť, (20) dvadsať, (21) dvadsaťjeden . . . . , (30) tridsať, (31) tridsaťjeden . . . (40) štyridsať, . . . (50) päťdesiat, . . . (60) šesťdesiat, . . . (70) sedemdesiat, . . . (80) osemdesiat, . . . (90) deväťdesiat, . . . (100) sto, (101) stojeden, . . . . (200) dvesto, . . . (300) tristo, . . . (900)deväťsto, . . . (1000) tisíc, . . . (1100) tisícsto, . . . (2000) dvetisíc, . . (100000) stotisíc, . . . (1. 000. 000) milión, . . .

See also: Slovak declension

Verbs (Slovesá)

• Verbs have three major conjugations distinguishing 3 persons and 2 numbers (singular and plural) – just like in English. There are several conjugation paradigms- like in most European languages. Here is the conjugation of some randomly chosen verbs (the forms are given in the order: I – you (sg) – he/she/it – we – you (pl) – they ):

to be (byť): som – si –je –sme –ste- sú

to have (mať): mám – máš –má –máme –máte –majú

to work (pracovať): pracujem – pracuješ –pracuje –pracujeme- pracujete – pracujú

to carry (niesť) nesiem – nesieš –nesie –nesieme – nesiete – nesú

to hide (skryť): skryjem – skryješ –skryje –skryjeme – skryjete - skryjú

• Subject personal pronouns are often omitted unless they are emphatic - like in Italian or Spanish, unlike in Russian or English.

• The infinitive always ends in -ť (see e.g. the above examples).

• The English continuous form (i.e. to be . . . ing) is expressed by a change in the stem of the verb or by removing the prefix (note however that this statement is a strong simplification). The non-continuous version is called a perfective verb and the continuous version an imperfective verb. Example: :to hide = skryť, to be hiding = skrývať

• There are only two past tenses. Both are formed analytically. Examples for two verbs (note that the continuous form is considered a separate verb in Slavic languages):

skryť (to hide) : skryl som (I hid / I have hid); bol som skryl (I had hid)

skrývať (to be hiding): skrýval som (I was hiding); bol som skrýval (I had been hiding)

• There is only one future tense. For imperfective verbs, it is formed analytically, for perfective verbs it is identical with the present tense. Examples:

skryť (to hide) : skryjem (I will hide / I will have hid)

skrývať (to be hiding) : budem skrývať (I will be hiding)

• There are two conditional forms. Both are formed analytically from the past tense:

skryť (to hide) : skryl by som (I would hide), bol by som skryl (I would have hid)

skrývať (to be hiding) : skrýval by som (I would be hiding), bol by som skrýval (I would have been hiding)

• The passive voice is formed either like in English (to be + past participle) or like in Romance languages (using the reflexive pronoun 'sa'):

skryť (to hide): je skrytý (he is hid); sa skryje (he is hid)

skrývať (to be hiding): je skrývaný (he is being hid); sa skrýva (he is being hid)

• The active present participle (=which is ...ing) is formed using the suffixes –úci/ -iaci / - aci

skryť (to hide) : skryjúci (which is hiding)

skrývať (to be hiding): skrývajúci (which is being hiding)

• The gerund (=by/when ...ing) )is formed using the suffixes –úc / -uc / –iac/-ac

skryť (to hide): skryjúc (by/when hiding)

skrývať (to be hiding): skrývajúc (by/when being hiding)

• The active past participle (= which was ...ing) was formerly formed using the suffix –všÃƒÂƒÃ‚­, but is no longer used.

• The passive participle (= ...ed (adj.)) is formed using the suffixes -ný / -tý / -ený:

skryť (to hide): skrytý (hid)

skrývať (to be hiding): skrývaný (being hid)

• The 'verbal noun' (= the ...ing) is formed using the suffix –ie:

skryť (to hide): skrytie (the hiding)

skrývať (to be hiding): skrývanie (the continuous hiding)

Adverbs (Príslovky)

Adverbs are usually formed by replacing the adjectival ending with the ending –o or sometimes –e / -y(sometimes both –o an d-e are possible). Examples:

vysoký (high) – vysoko (highly)

pekný (nice) – pekne (nicely)

priateľský (friendly) – priateľsky (in a friendly manner)

rýchly (fast) – rýchlo / rýchle (quickly)

The comparative/superlative of adverbs is formed by replacing the adjective comparative/superlative ending - (ej)šÃƒÂƒÃ‚­ by the ending –(ej)šie. Examples:

rýchly (fast)– rýchlejšÃƒÂƒÃ‚­ (faster) – najrýchlejšÃƒÂƒÃ‚­ (fastest):rýchlo (quickly) – rýchlejšie (more quickly) – najrýchlejšie (most quickly)

Prepositions (Predložky)

They are used like in English, except that, in addition, each single preposition is associated with a particular grammatical case and the noun following the preposition must take the ending of the case required by the preposition. Example:

from friends = od priateľov (priateľov is the genitive case of priatelia, because the preposition od (=from) always calls for its objects to be in the genitive case)

Conjunctions (Spojky), Particles (Častice), Interjections (Citoslovce)

They work more or less like in the English language.

Note: The Slovak (and Czech) definition of particles has been taken from Russian linguistics. Although the English linguists subsume them under the conjunctions, interjections and other word types, they nevertheless work like in English. Examples of particles as they are understood by Slovak linguists are the English words (the text in the brackets gives a sentence as an example): Well (, what will we do?), yes, anyway, obviously, above all, not ...at all, And ( what do you think?), But ( that is impossible!), so (, that's it!), hardly, really, most importantly, also, (what) the hell (is he doing?), actually, please, even, in sum, believe it or not, maybe, unfortunately, of course, I wonder where (you have been), in one word ...

Vocabulary

See also: Common phrases in different languages, Slovak lexicon

History

See: History of the Slovak language

Relations to other languages

The Slovak language arose directly from the Proto-Slavic language independently of other Slavic languages (see History).

The present-day Slovak language is closely related to the Polish and Czech languages. The difference between Slovak and Czech is comparable to that between Italian and Spanish, except that nowadays the Czechs and the Slovaks have more common words due to their long historic coexistence especially within the now-defunct country of Czechoslovakia. The Slovak is related to Czech especially in written form (because the Slovak literary language has taken over Czech spelling), but differs from it both phonetically and grammatically. However, the Slovak did not arise from the Czech language (neither from the Old nor from the Middle Czech) and the Czech language started to penetrate to Slovakia only in the 14th century. Adult educated Slovaks are able to understand both Czech and Polish without a translator. In general, it can be stated that during the existence of Czechoslovakia (and especially of a common television), the language has taken over many Czech words, idioms and some features of the syntax, and lost many typical Slovak expressions in turn. The future development after the split of Czechoslovakia (1993) remains to be seen, because close cultural and educational contacts did not disappear. Nowadays the ability to completely understand Czech, however, seems to disappear with a part of the youngest generation (and this is definitively the case with the Czech children in the opposite direction).

The Slovak standard language holds a central position among Slavic languages: It has common features with:

• the Czech language [western neighbor of Slovakia]
• the Polish language [northern neighbor of Slovakia] , e. g. the use of the prefix pre-, use of the consonant dz, and some vocabulary (teraz, pivnica)
• South Slavic languages (especially Slovenian); this connection is due to the fact that the territory of present-day Hungary was inhabited by the Sloviene (see Great Moravia) before the Hungarians settled there in the 10th century, thus bringing about the rise of the Slovaks and Slovenians and of the corresponding languages
• East Slavic languages [eastern neighbors of Slovakia; a Ruthenian/ Ukrainian minority lives in northern eastern Slovakia]

This central position makes it relatively easy for other Slavs to understand Slovak and vice-versa. Thus, Slovak provides a good starting point from which to branch off to any additional Slavic language. Note however that the above only holds for the standard (i. e. northern central Slovak) language, not necessarily for the dialects (see Dialects).

Slovak is not related to the (non-Slavic) Hungarian language and it has only borrowed a few (maybe 20) words from the Hungarian language, although Slovakia was part of Hungary from the 11th century to 1918. On the contrary, the Hungarian language borrowed a lot of words from the Slovak language (and the South Slavic languages), especially in the 10th century, when the nomadic Hungarians settled in present-day Hungary and had to take over basic vocabulary necessary for a civilized life (e. g. the words for: table, window, male sheep, brother, dear, dinner, supper, street, book, coat, pub, cherry, basket, key, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, German, shepherd, prince, king, servant, Christian, pagant, angel, miller, smith, county, county border, county leader. . . )

Differences between the Slovak and Czech language

• Slovak phonemes that do not exist in the Czech language are ä, dz, dž, ľ, ŕ, ĺ and the diphthongs ia /ie /iu /ô (see Pronunciation). Czech phonemes that do not exist in the Slovak language are: ř, ě and the diphthong ou.
• The Slovak, unlike Czech, uses palatalization more frequently (i.e., is phonetically “softer“)
• There are huge differences in how basic phonemes (e.g., e) are pronounced in both languages.
• The phonetic assimilation and a kind of "liaison" are much stronger in the Slovak language
• The Slovak grammar:
  • is much simpler (i.e. above all more regular) than Czech grammar, since the present-day Slovak language standard has been codified only in the 19th century.
  • has different declension and conjugation endings and paradigms
  • has only 6 grammatical cases (see Slovak declension), while the Czech has one additional case – the vocative case
• Basic Slovak vocabulary is partly different, partly identical, partly very similar to the Czech language, and a few (almost) identical words have different meaning. The differences are mostly of simple historical origin (e.g. the word hej mentioned below was used in Great Moravia). As for professional terminology, except for biology (esp. all names of animals and plants), the Czech terminology was mostly taken over (in Slovakized form) for practical reasons. The Czech-Slovak Dictionary of Different Terms (1989, Prague) contains some 11.000 entries (without professional terminology):
  • Examples of basic different words are: to speak (SK hovoriť – CZ mluvit), yeah (SK hej – CZ: jo), if (SK ak – CZ jestli, -li), Good bye (SK Dovidenia – CZ Nashledanou), January (SK január – CZ leden), cat (SK mačka -CZ kočka), to kiss (SK bozkať – CZ líbat), now (SK teraz – CZ nyní, teď), goods (SK tovar – CZ zbožÃƒÂƒÃ‚­) etc.
  • Examples of typical small differences: endings (SK – cia, -dlo, -ť, -om - CZ – c(i)e, -tko, -t, -em ), expressions (SK treba, možno – CZ je třeba, je možné), prepositions (SK na – CZ k, pro) . . .
  • Examples of words with different meanings : SK topiť (to melt) – CZ topit (to heat), SK horký (bitter) – CZ horký (hot) . . .
• The Czech language has no equivalents for many Slovak words and vice versa. Examples of no Czech equivalents: prepositions (popod, ponad, sponad. . . ), verbs (ľÃƒÂƒÃ‚ºbiť, poprehadzovať, pootvárať. . . ), nouns (čižma, kúrňava, kaštieľ, hoľa). . . , pronouns (dakto, voľakto, henten . . . ) etc.
• The Czech language does not have the Rhythmical Rule (see Pronunciation)
• The Slovak uses the passive voice formed like in English less than the Czech, and prefers the passive voice formed using the reflexive pronoun sa (like in Romance languages) instead
• The Slovaks use hundreds of dialects, while in the Czech Republic, the dialects have mostly disappeared

Dialects

The spoken Slovak language consists of a large number of dialects that can be divided in three basic groups:

• Eastern Slovak dialects (in Spis, Saris, Zemplin and Abov)
• Central Slovak dialects (in Liptov, Orava, Turiec, Tekov, Hont, Novohrad, Gemer and the historic Zvolen county)
• Western Slovak dialects (in remaining Slovakia)

They differ mostly in phonology, inflection and vocabulary. The differences in syntax are minor. Modified Central Slovak forms the basis of the present-day standard language. Not all dialects are fully mutually intelligible. The differences between some Slovak dialects make it e. g. often impossible for an inhabitant of the Slovak capital Bratislava (in western Slovakia) to understand a person from eastern Slovakia. Also, at the dialect level, only western Slovak can be considered fully mutually intelligible with the Czech language. The dialects are fragmented geographically, separated by numerous mountain ranges (Slovakia is a mountainous country). The above three groups already existed in the 10th century. All the three dialect groups are also spoken by the Slovaks living outside Slovakia (in Hungary, Serbia, Romania and Bulgaria). The western dialects contain many features common with the Moravian dialects in the Czech Republic, the southern central dialects contain a few features common with South Slavic languages, and the eastern dialects a few features common with the Polish and the East Slavonic languages. However, historically, Slovak dialects arose as autonomous languages and they arose neither from the Czech, nor from the Polish, nor from the Ukrainian language.

See also

• Slovak declension
• History of the Slovak language
• List of traditional regions of Slovakia (for the dialects)
• for the codification of the present-day Slovak language standard: Ludovit Stur
• Slovak Wikipedia

External links

• Introduction To Slovak Language
• Detailed Slovak Declension
• Slovak Language: From Children's Books to Word Processing Software
• Monolingual Slovak Dictionary Online
• English-Slovak-English Dictionary
• Slovak-English-Slovak Dictionary
• Languages-on-the-Web Best Slovak Links

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