Homosexuality
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Homosexuality is a sexual orientation characterized by sexual desire or romantic love exclusively or almost exclusively for members of the same gender (cf. heterosexuality, bisexuality), also known as being gay. The term homosexuality is also applied to any sexual activity between members of the same sex.
The term homosexuality was coined in 1869 by Karl Maria Kertbeny in an anonymous pamphlet advocating the repeal of Prussia's sodomy laws (Bullough et. al. ed. (1996)). It was listed in 1886 in Richard von Krafft-Ebing's study on deviant sexual practices entitled Psychopathia Sexualis. The word homosexual translates literally as "of the same sex," being a hybrid of the Greek prefix meaning "same" and the Latin root meaning "gender." Although some early writers used the adjective homosexual to refer to any single-gender context (such as the Roman Catholic clergy or an all-girls' school), today the term implies a sexual aspect. The term homosocial is used for single-sex contexts that are not specifically sexual. The older symononym for homosexuality, homophilia, has fallen into disuse.
Western people who regard themselves as having a same-gender sexual orientation tend to prefer the terms gay and lesbian; the latter term (noun or adjective) refers specifically to women. The term gay can apply to both men and women, but it is often used only for males (hence the expression gays and lesbians or the more precise gay men and lesbians) and its inclusive use is common but not standard. Other terms include same-gender loving, and same-sex oriented. Less frequently, the terms queer, homo, and fag or faggot are used positively among gay men and lesbians, but are generally considered derogatory otherwise.
The term homosexual can be used as a noun or adjective to describe same-sex oriented persons as well as their sexual attraction and behavior. However, some advocates insist that the terms homosexual and homosexuality be avoided lest their use cause confusion or arouse controversy. Some people also regard the description of individuals as homosexual to be offensive, or at least inaccurate, partially because of the negative clinical association from its use in describing same-sex attraction as a pathological state before homosexuality was removed from the American Psychiatric Association's list of mental disorders. Likewise, the use of homosexuality to describe sexual behavior between people of the same sex can be seen as insulting. Same-sex oriented people seldom apply these terms to themselves, and public officials and agencies often avoid them. For instance, the Safe Schools Coalition of Washington's Glossary for school employees advises that gay is the "preferred synonym for homosexual," and goes on to advise avoiding the term homosexual as it is "clinical, distancing and archaic":
Which terms are acceptable and which are offensive varies widely with location and culture, and the connotations of the words gay and lesbian are also culturally dependent. For instance, among some sectors of African-American gay sub-culture, same-sex sexual behavior is sometimes viewed as solely for physical pleasure. Men on the down-low (DL) may engage in regular (although often covert) sex acts with other men while continuing sexual and romantic relationships with unwitting women. These men often regard gay as a term that applies to stereotypically flamboyant and effeminate men of European ancestry, a group from which some may wish to distance themselves. (Some experts have suggested that this DL subculture may have come about because of stronger stigmas against same-sex behavior in African-American communities, and greater dependence on possibly homophobic family networks for support.)
Other communities have created their own terms or have adapted English terms for their own purposes. In Japan, for example, use of the word "gay" is fairly recent. In recent history the more descriptive dōseiaisha (同性愛者, literally same-sex-loving person) was the only term available. Prior to that a variety of obscure historical terms largely influenced by classical Chinese literature were employed. More recently the contraction "homo" was used; somewhat confusingly this term was used both positively and pejoratively. Nowadays the terms gei (ゲイ, a transliteration of gay) and bian or rezubian (ビアン、レズビアン, transliterations of lesbian) are the most common in the gay community, while pejorative terms like okama (a word of obscure origin literally meaning a cooking pot) are sometimes used by non-gays.
Estimates of the prevalence of homosexuality vary considerably with the definition of what "homosexuality" actually is. Some consider its most important aspect to be sexual behavior between members of the same sex ("homosexual acts"), while others stress inclination or orientation. Two primary issues are same-sex sexual activity and same-sex sexual identity or inclination. These may be further divided. For example, sexual behavior may occur among persons of the same sex who do not themselves identify as "homosexual" (see gay sex). Conversely, persons who identify as same-sex loving are not always sexually active, whether due to necessity, circumstances, or personal choice. Similarly, a person may have same-sex sexual thoughts or inclinations without ever acting on them or regarding themselves as having a same-sex sexual orientation. All of these fall under the umbrella of "homosexuality", and may or may not be included in research surveys. A survey that counts only same-sex sexual contact, for example, will exclude all celibate homosexuals.
The results and conclusions of studies on homosexuality are invariably challenged. Indeed, unclear definitions, social stigmas, and political influences make it essentially impossible to accurately determine the number of "homosexuals" in a given society. In general, most research agrees that the number of people who have had multiple same-gender sexual experiences is fewer than the number of people who have had a single such experience, and that the number of people who identify themselves as exclusively homosexual is fewer than the number of people who have had multiple homosexual experiences.
At one extreme, the Kinsey report (1948) reported that 37% of men in the U.S. had achieved orgasm through contact with another male after adolescence. However, Kinsey's work was based on a population sample that was likely to have been biased and consequently his results have been disputed. Since Kinsey, a number of large-scale cross-cultural studies, involving tens of thousands of subjects selected at random, have consistently reported a percentage lower than Kinsey's estimate. For example,
Some people who are in general heterosexual may have mild or occasional interest in members of their own sex. Conversely, many people who identify themselves as homosexual, or who might prefer homosexual activities or relationships, have engaged in heterosexual activities or even have long-term heterosexual relationships. Such heterosexual behavior by people who otherwise show homosexual behavior has often been part of being "in the closet," or concealing one's homosexual orientation, and may be becoming less common, as acceptance of homosexuality increases.
Some studies, notably Sexual Behavior in the Human Male and Sexual Behavior in the Human Female (1953) by Alfred Kinsey, point out that when asked to rate themselves on a continuum from completely heterosexual to completely homosexual, and when the individual's behavior as well as their identity is analyzed, the majority of people appear to be at least somewhat bisexual. During their lives most people have some attraction to both sexes, although usually one sex is preferred. Kinsey and his followers therefore consider only a minority (5-10%) to be fully or exclusively heterosexual or homosexual. Conversely, only an even smaller minority can be considered "fully" bisexual, if that term is defined as having no preference for one sex over another. Some later studies have suggested that Kinsey's studies exaggerate the occurrence of bisexuality in the population at large, but his idea of a sexuality continuum still enjoys wide acceptance.
Sexual activity with a person of the same sex, in and of itself, does not necessarily demonstrate homosexual orientation, but is considered homosexual behavior. Not all who are attracted or have sexual relationships with members of the same sex identify themselves as homosexual or even bisexual. Some people frequently have sex with members of the same sex yet still see themselves as heterosexual. It is important therefore to distinguish between homosexual behavior, homosexual attraction and homosexual identity, which need not coincide. For example, people in prison, the military, or other sex-segregated environments may engage in situational homosexual behavior despite being heterosexual outside these environments. In addition, some people engage in homosexual behaviors for reasons other than desire. One example is male prostitutes (often called hustlers) who earn money by having sex with other men: while some hustlers are homosexual themselves, a significant number are not.
Homosexual behavior appears to be widespread amongst birds and mammals such as apes, and some believe that this behavior has its origin in male social organization and social dominance, similar to the dominance traits shown in prison sexuality.
Homosexual behavior can be found amongst the bonobo, which is a fully bisexual species; the black swans of Australia will also form sexually active male-male mated pairs and steal nests or form temporary threesomes with females to obtain eggs. A March 2004 study states that homosexual behavior in sheep is related to a region in their brain which is called "ovine sexually dimorphic nucleus".
Some scholars in Queer studies, and most famously the French philosopher Michel Foucault (though some have argued that his opinions on this issue have been distorted by later scholars), attack the notion that sexual identities such as 'homosexuality', 'heterosexuality' or 'bisexuality' have any objective existence, viewing them instead as social constructions. (See Queer theory.) A frequent argument used is that homosexuality prior to the modern period differed from modern homosexuality (age-, gender- or class-structured rather than egalitarian). Critics argue that, although homosexuality in different periods has had different features, the underlying phenomenon has always existed and is not a recent invention of our society.
Once homosexual desire or behavior has been singled out for attention, and especially negative attention, the question naturally arises: What makes people this way? The causes of sexual orientation are currently under investigation. The general understanding that seems to be emerging is that rather than a single cause being involved, there is instead a symphony of factors that act over a long time to determine each individual's sexual orientation. Nurture, nature, or a combination of both determine human sexual behavior.
One theory by Susan Blackmore is that homosexuality is largely genetic in origin. The question of how homosexuals counterintuitively replicated their genes, given that homosexual sex does not result in reproduction, can be answered by the theory that social dogma caused individuals with homosexual genes to behave heterosexually and thus reproduce. This theory goes on to predict that homosexuality will be less common in the future because, as we enter the information age, homosexuality will become become more widely known and accepted, and therefore individuals with homosexual genes will feel less inclined to behave heterosexually and will thus reproduce less.
Imitation, a major mechanism of cultural transmission, may account for some homosexual behavior. As the concept of homosexuality makes its way to television and other mass information replicators, it has a much greater chance of being imitated. Perhaps the stereotypical lisp of homosexuals came about in this way. Thus, perhaps homosexuals have no genetic tendency toward a lisp, but one who happened to have a lisp was widely imitated. Perhaps the lisp even evolved to serve as an aural cue to distinguish potential homosexual partners from heterosexuals.
Societal attitudes towards homosexuality have varied over the centuries, from homophobia to social acceptance.
The religious response to homosexuality varies, though in most Abrahamic religions homosexuality is considered a sin; see religion and homosexuality for a comprehensive discussion.
In many cultures, especially those influenced by anti-gay religions, homosexuality is considered a perversion and has been outlawed (see sodomy law, consensual crime); in some jurisdictions homosexual behaviour is a capital crime. Persecution of homosexuals ("gay bashing") in such cultures is common; the experience of homosexuals in Nazi Germany is an egregious example.
Beginning in the 20th century, gay rights movements, as part of the broader civil rights movements, in concert with the development of the often activist academic treatment of sexuality in queer studies, have led to changes in social acceptance and in the media portrayal of homosexuality. The legalization of same-sex marriage and non-gender-specific civil unions is one of the major goals of gay rights activism.
When discussing the history of homosexuality, one must first understand that the term "homosexuality" and its associated meanings are a product of 19th century psychology as well as the years of post-Stonewall gay liberation. Throughout most of written history, homosexual relations usually took the form of pederasty (as distinguished from pedophilia), that is, they were characterized by a marked age difference and the fixed assignment of sexual roles. Another paradigm would be the two-spirited people of the American continent or the arivanna (see hijra) of the Indian sub-continent in which partners of the same biological sex but different social genders would be common.
The earliest western documents concerning homosexual relationships come from Ancient Greece, where same-sex relationships were a societal norm. Kenneth J. Dover has claimed that such relationships did not replace marriage between man and woman, but occurred before and beside it. These relationships were typically pederastic, and it would be unusual for a man to have a mature male mate (though some did, such as Alexander the Great and Agathon in Plato's Symposium); a greater number of men would be the erastes (lover) to a young eromenos (loved one). In this relationship, claims Dover, it was considered "improper" for the eromenos to feel desire, as that would not be masculine. Driven by desire and admiration, the erastes would devote himself unselfishly to providing all the education his eromenos required to thrive in society. In recent times, the research by Dover has been questioned in light of massive evidence of love poetry and paintings on ceramic vases, which suggest a more emotional connection than earlier researchers liked to acknowledge.
The sexual orientation of pre-modern figures is a topic of intense controversy. It may be accepted, for example, that the sex lives of historical figures such as Alexander the Great, Plato, Hadrian, Virgil, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo or Christopher Marlowe included or were centred upon relationships with people of their own gender. Terms such as homosexual or bisexual might be applied to them in that sense. But many regard this as risking the anachronistic introduction of a social construction of sexuality that was foreign to their time. For example, their society might have focussed upon the sexual role one took in these encounters, namely active, passive, both or neither, as a key social marker.
It could be noted, on the other hand, that when the evidence is that a particular historical figure's sex life focussed exclusively on people of an opposite gender, describing them as heterosexual rarely evokes such controversy.
During the last decades, in part due to their history of shared oppression, homosexuals in the west have developed a shared culture, although not all homosexuals participate in it, and many homosexual men and women specifically decline to do so. (See gay pride.)
Homosexuality in Asian, specifically China and Japan, has been acknowledged since at least 600BCE. Such relationships were similarly pederastic and marked by differences in age and social position. For more information see History of homosexuality in China and History of Homosexuality in Japan.
[1]: Survey responses are often conditioned by the desire not to express opinions or supply information of which the respondent suspects society or the questioner may not approve. Revealing one's sexual orientation may well fall into this category, so affecting the accuracy of some surveys and under-estimating the actual scale of homosexuality. A similar phenomenon affects survey data on minority religions, on personal views on controversial matters such as abortion, and on degrees of political support for a political party. (Classic examples of this are not 'admitting' support in surveys in the late 1990s for the British Conservative Party, or controversial parties like the Democratic Unionist Party and Sinn FÃÂéin in Northern Ireland, etc. with such parties getting a higher vote in the privacy of a ballot box than reported in surveys.) The NORC data has been criticised because the original design sampling techniques were not followed, and depended upon direct self report regarding masturbation and same sex behaviors. (For example, the original data in the early 1990s reported that approximately 40% of adult males had never masturbated--a finding inconsistent with some other studies.)
Etymology and usage
Sometimes appropriate in referring to behavior (although same-sex is the
preferred adjective). When referring to people, as opposed to behavior,
homosexual is considered derogatory and the terms gay and lesbian are
preferred, at least in the Northwest.
The Guardian Style Guide, Newswatch Diversity Style Guide, and the Committee on Lesbian and Gay Concern of the American Psychological Association's Avoiding Heterosexual Bias in Language all agree that "gay" is the preferred term.Prevalence of homosexuality
In general, surveys quoted by anti-gay activists tend to show figures nearer 1%, while surveys quoted by gay activists tend to show figures nearer 10%.
However, survey results can be expected to be biased by under-reporting. (See note 1.)Homosexuality as one end of a bisexual continuum
Homosexual behavior in non-human animals
Main article: Homosexuality in animalsTheories on homosexuality and homosexual behavior
Society, religion, and the law
History
Main article:History of homosexualityRelated articles
External links and references
Source
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