Crucifixion
Crucifixion is a particularly cruel method of execution. The victim is tied by the wrists, and perhaps nailed through the hands or wrists, and sometimes also through the feet, to a large wooden cross (Latin: crux) and left to hang there until dead. Depending upon the location of the nails, tying may not have been necessary. The method is now nearly entirely abandoned.
The Crucifixion of Jesus Christ, by Matthias Grunewald
Given the long history of crucifiction, and that its purpose was simply to providing a maximally painful and gruesome death, one can be sure that the details varied considerably with location and epoch, and even from case to case. So there is not much that can be said about the practice in general.
Another possibility, that does not require tying, is that the nails were inserted just above the wrist, between the two bones of the forearm (the radius and the ulna). The nails could also be driven through the wrist, in a space between four carpal bones (which is the location shown in the Shroud of Turin). As some historians have suggested, the Gospel words that are translated as "hands" may have in fact included everything below the mid-forearm. Another possibility, suggested by Frederick Zugibe, is that the nails may have been driven in on an angle, entering in the palm in the crease that delineates the bulky region at the base of the thumb, and exiting in the wrist, passing through the carpal tunnel.
When the whole weight was supported by the arms, the victim would have severe difficulty exhaling, due to hyper-expansion of the lungs. The victim would therefore have to draw themselves up by their arms to breathe. Once unable to lift himself, the victim would die within a few minutes.
To lengthen the victim's agony, the feet could be supported by tying or by a wood block. In that case, a number of other causes could contribute to the victim's death, such as physical shock, dehydration, exhaustion, asphyxiation due to collapse of chest muscles, and loss of blood.
A common prelude was scourging, which would cause the victim to lose a large amount of blood and approach a state of traumatic shock. The prisoner then usually had to carry the horizontal beam (patibulum in Latin) to the place of execution, not necessarily the whole cross. Crucifixion was typically carried out by specialized teams, consisting of a commanding centurion and four soldiers. When it was done in an established place of execution, the vertical beam (stipes) was sometimes permanently embedded in the ground. The victim was usually stripped naked. The "nails" were tapered iron spikes approximately 5 to 7 in (13 to 18 cm) long with a square shaft 3/8 in (1 cm) across.
The Romans often broke the prisoner's legs to hasten death. Burial afterwards was not usually permitted. In some cases, the nails were gathered afterwards and used as healing amulets.
Emperor Constantine abolished crucifixion in the Roman Empire, when Christianity became the state religion.
During World War I, there were persistent rumors that German soldiers had crucified an Allied (Canadian) soldier on a tree or barn door with bayonets or combat knives. The report was initially reported by Sergeant Hary Band of the Canadian First Division. His report of the 1915 account is as follows:
"On 24 April at St Julien I saw a small party of Germans about 50 yards away. I lay still and in about half an hour they left. I saw what appeared to be a man in British uniform. I was horrified to see that the man was literally crucified, being fastened to the post by eight bayonets.
"He was suspended about 18" from the ground, the bayonets being driven through his legs, shoulders, throat and testicles. At his feet lay an English rifle, broken and covered with blood."
The event supposedly happened to, according to a Red Cross Nurse and multiple testimonies from men of the same unit, a Harry Banks of Canadian 48th Highland Regiment. This story was widely used in the black propaganda of the time, together with a similar rumor that Germans had bayoneted Belgian babies. Such rumours made for highly graphic and disturbing pictures and were ideal for helping to demonize the enemy.
After the war, investigators tried to determine the veracity of the story of the crucified soldier, but it was inconclusive.
There are persistent stories that crucifixions continue to occur in certain parts of Africa, particularly in Sudan.
Details of the crucifiction
Cross shape
The horizontal beam of the cross could be fixed at the very top of the vertical piece; this shape is referred as the "Tau" or "T" crucifix. The horizontal beam could also be affixed at some distance below the top, often in a mortise; this "tee" or "t" shape is the one most often depicted in Christian imagery. Alternatively the cross could consist of two diagonal beams, in the "X" shape, also known as the Saint Andreas cross.Location of nails
In popular depictions of crucifixion, possibly derived from a literal reading of the Gospel's description of Jesus's wounds being "in the hands", the victim is shown supported by nails driven straight through the palms of the hands. However, the flesh of the hands cannot support a person's body weight, so some other means should have been used to support most of the weight, such as tying the wrists to the cross beam. Cause of death
Death could come in hours or days, depending on exact methods, the health of those crucified, and environmental circumstances.History of crucifixion
Persia and Alexander
Crucifixion probably originated with ancient Persians. There is evidence that captured pirates were crucified in the port of Athens in the 7th century BC. Alexander the Great introduced the practice throughout his empire. He once crucified a general who disagreed with his campaign plans.Roman Empire
Romans adopted the custom from Carthage and used it for slaves, rebels, and especially despised enemies and criminals. Condemned Roman citizens were usually exempt from crucifixion except for high crimes against the state, such as treason. The Romans used it during the Spartacus rebellion, during the Roman Civil War and the destruction of Jerusalem. Crucifixion was considered an ignominious way to die.Islamic world
Some medieval Muslim rulers used crucifixion sporadically.Medieval Japan
Crucifixion was used in Japan before and during the Tokugawa Shogunate.
The victim—usually a sentenced criminal—was hoisted upon a T-shaped cross. Then, executioners killed him with spears. The body was left to hang for a time before burial.Mesoamerica
There are some reports that, after the Spanish conquest of Mesoamerica in the 16th century, some natives performed human sacrifice by crucifixion due to their superficial understanding of Christianity.Modern crucifixions
Crucifixion, while rare in recent times, was used at Dachau during the Holocaust and in a number of wars, such as in Cambodia under the Khmer Rouge and during the Sino-Japanese war, where it was used among the many methods of torture and execution used by Japanese soldiers against Chinese civilians--largely in emulation of medieval Japanese military practices.Crucifixion as a devotional practice
Some very devout Catholic Filipinos are voluntarily, non-lethally crucified for a limited time on Good Friday, to imitate the suffering of Jesus. As of 2004, Ruben Enaje has been crucified 18 times in San Pedro Cutad during Passion Week celebrations. (NYT)Famous crucifixions
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