Birth control
When pregnancy is not desired, either at least one of the participants must be sterile, sexual intercourse must be avoided, or contraception must be used to prevent conception.
Contraception (even vasectomy) is not always 100 per cent effective. More generally, in sexual behavior contact of semen with the vagina should be avoided. For example, partners can restrict themselves to masturbation, oral sex, etc., but they should not forget to keep not only the penis but also the sperm away from the vagina. Abstinence is sometimes called the only 'sure' way to avoid pregnancy. If perfectly adhered to, it is. However, some who habitually rely on it as their primary protection may cease to abstain and thereby incur the risk of pregnancy.
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2 Traditional birth control methods: 3 Modern birth control methods: 4 Religious and cultural attitudes to birth control |
Probably the oldest methods of contraception are coitus interruptus,
barrier methods, and herbal abortifacients. While it seems like the "rhythm
method" would have been a good choice, scientists did not figure out the
details of the human menstrual cycle until the early 20th century.
Coitus interruptus (withdrawal of the penis from the vagina prior to ejaculation) probably predates any other form of birth control.
Once the relationship between the emission of semen into the vagina and
pregnancy was known or suspected, some men probably managed to think
through the haze of passion and withdraw in time. This is not a particularly
reliable method of contraception, but it requires no equipment and is still
better than nothing.
Folklore has always suggested douching immediately following intercourse as a contraceptive method, and while it seems like a sensible idea to try to wash the ejaculate out of the vagina, it does not work due to the nature of the fluids and the structure of the female reproductive tract -- if anything, douching spreads semen further towards the uterus. Some slight spermicidal effect may occur if the douche solution is particularly acidic, but overall it is not an effective method.
There are historic records of
Egyptian women using a pessary (that is, a vaginal suppository) made of various acidic substances
(crocodile dung is alleged) and lubricated with honey or oil, which may have been
somewhat effective at killing sperm. However, it is important to note that the sperm cell was not discovered until Anton van Leeuwenhoek invented the microscope in the late 17th century, so barrier methods employed prior to that time were believed to be functioning under a different or mysterious principle. Oriental women may have used oiled
paper as a cervical cap, and Europeans may have used beeswax for this
purpose. The condom appeared sometime in the 17th century, initially made of a length
of animal intestine. It was not particularly popular, nor as effective as
modern latex condoms, but was employed both as a means of contraception and in the hopes of avoiding syphilis, which was greatly feared and devastating prior to the discovery of antibiotic drugs. (time references and more details pending)
Various abortifacients have been used throughout human history. Some of
these were effective, some were not; those that were most effective also
had major side effects. The ingestion of certain poisons by the female can
disrupt the reproductive system; women have drunk solutions containing
mercury, arsenic, or other toxic substances for this purpose. The Greek gynaecologist Soranus
in the 2nd century AD suggested that women drink water that blacksmiths
had used to cool metal. The herbs tansy and pennyroyal are well-known in folklore
as abortive agents, but these also "work" by poisoning the woman. Levels
of the active chemicals in these herbs that will induce a miscarriage are
high enough to damage the liver, kidneys, and other organs, making them
very dangerous. However, in those times where risk of maternal death from postpartum complications was high, the risks and side effects of toxic medicines may have seemed less onerous.
There are references in Arabic history to traders inserting a small stone
into the uterus of a camel in order to prevent it from conceiving, a
concept very similar to the modern IUD, but it seems unlikely that this
was used as a contraceptive method for humans since knowledge of the female
reproductive tract was very limited until the 20th century, and surgical techniques were poor.
Oral contraceptives did not appear until the mid-20th century, when scientists better understood the process of conception and advances in biochemistry allowed for the isolation (and later synthesis) of the hormones controlling the cycle.
Christianity in general has had mixed opinions towards contraception and
its role in society over the years. The sizeable ELCA, which includes a large number of US Lutheran and Episcopalian churches, makes the following statement:
The official position of the Catholic Church regarding birth control is expressed very clearly in Pope Pius XI's encyclical entitled Casti Connubii. It was written in response to the Episcopalian approval of artificial means of contraception when used in cases of grave necessity.
Couples seeking marriage in the Catholic Church are required to undergo counseling by a Catholic priest. In the past priests led couples seeking to delay children to rhythm, today they are instructed to point new couples toward the more effective natural family planning.
The Qur'an does not make any explicit statements about the morality of contraception (nor does the Bible), but contains statements encouraging procreation (similar to those found in the Bible). Various interpretations have been set forth over time , and at the time of this writing, discussions on the web can be found easily that take various positions. Early Muslim literature discusses various contraceptive methods, and a study sponsored by the Egyptian government concluded that not only was azl (coitus interruptus) acceptable from a moral standpoint, but any similar method that did not produce sterility was also acceptable. However, there are several schools of thought on this as well as other issues concerning Islamic morality.
The option of contraception is raised by the Talmud (tractate Yevamot 12b), where the use of a pessary is discussed for women who are too young to get pregnant, presently pregnant, or nursing. Is each case either the woman or her child is at risk for serious complications, and this is the basis for many rabbinic authorities permitting contraception in situations where pregnancy would seriously harm the woman. In those cases, the most "natural" method is preferred; as the use of a condom or pessary creates a physical barrier, "the pill" (or and intrauterine device) is preferred by most authorities.
Contraceptive measures that lead to sterility, especially male sterility (e.g. through vasectomy), are problematic, and a sterilised man may have to separate from his wife (based on Deuteronomy 23:2).
When Orthodox Jewish couples contemplate the use of contraceptives, they generally consult a rabbi who evaluates the need for the intervention and which method is preferrable from a halachic point of view.
A remarkable use of the contraceptive pill in Judaism is by young brides. The laws of family purity state that intercourse cannot take place while a woman is menstruating (see niddah). In order to decrease the chance of menstruation occurring just before (or on) the wedding night, many brides briefly regulate their periods in the months leading up to their wedding.
Generally, the introduction of oral contraceptives has not caused the stir in Jewish circles that it caused in other religious groups. It was followed by a number of responsa from rabbinic decisors (poskim) which outlined the proper approach to the new phenomenon. There has been surprisingly little talk of the potential risk of increased promiscuity (z'nut).History of birth control
Traditional birth control methods:
Modern birth control methods:
Condoms and herbal birth control methods existed before the modern era. The
herbal methods were of various degrees of efficacy, and were available in China and Europe.Religious and cultural attitudes to birth control
Christianity
This is a fairly overt acceptance of modern contraceptives. The other major Lutheran and Presbyterian associations, as well as other Protestant groups in general, may take other positions.Catholicism
In 1968 Pope Paul VI released a document called Humanae Vitae, which again forbade chemical and barrier methods but suggested natural methods such as the rhythm method or natural family planning might be considered in cases of necessity. The public response to this suggestion was immediate and overwhelming. There is dissent however. Some priests and theologians accept only abstinence as moral and there are also those who assert abstinence within a marriage can be immoral.Islam
Judaism
Active prevention of pregnancy is in violation of the commandment "be fruitful and multiply" (Genesis 1:22). Rabbinic authorities further consider the possibility (generally not accepted) that a union that by definition cannot lead to pregnancy would amount to "spilling seed", the sin of Onan (Genesis 38:9).